Literature: authors starting with I

Ibbotson and Kaplan (2000) · Does Asset Allocation Policy Explain 40, 90, or 100 Percent of Performance?

Ibbotson, Roger G.; Kaplan, Paul D.. Financial Analysts Journal 56 (1), pp. 26–33. doi:10.2469/faj.v56.n1.2327

Clarifies Brinson et al.: asset allocation explains about 90% of the variation over time, but only about 40% of the differences between funds.

Cited in: 60/40 portfolio: the classic mix of equities and bonds · Strategic and tactical asset allocation and the total portfolio approach · Performance attribution: Brinson decomposition, factors and linking over time · Sharpe's style analysis: what a fund really does · Glossary: Strategic asset allocation

Ibbotson et al. (2007) · Lifetime Financial Advice: Human Capital, Asset Allocation, and Insurance

Ibbotson, Roger G.; Milevsky, Moshe A.; Chen, Peng; Zhu, Kevin X.. Research Foundation of CFA Institute. doi:10.2470/rf.v2007.n1.4580

Monograph on financial planning over the life cycle: human capital, mortality risk and longevity risk jointly determine asset allocation, life insurance and annuities.

Cited in: Your whole wealth: total wealth from portfolio, home, human capital and car · Glossary: Household balance sheet

ICE Index Rules (2023) · ICE BofA Diversified High Yield US Emerging Markets Corporate Plus Index – Rules & Methodology

ICE Data Indices. ICE Data Indices, September 29, 2023; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Rules of an ICE BofA index: a minimum size of $300 million, monthly rebalancing on the last calendar day, and coupons held as cash without earning interest until month end.

Cited in: Index providers and valuation points: why the same index is calculated differently

Idzorek (2007) · A step-by-step guide to the Black-Litterman model

Idzorek, Thomas. Elsevier (Satchell, ed.: Forecasting Expected Returns in the Financial Markets). doi:10.1016/b978-075068321-0.50003-0

A step-by-step guide to the Black-Litterman model with a method for specifying confidence as a percentage.

Cited in: Black-Litterman: incorporating your own views cleanly · Optimization methodology: estimation, objectives, Black-Litterman, resampling and walk-forward

Ilmanen (2003) · Stock-Bond Correlations

Ilmanen, Antti. The Journal of Fixed Income 13 (2), pp. 55–66. doi:10.3905/jfi.2003.319353

The correlation between stocks and government bonds was mostly positive in the 20th century and negative only in the early 1930s, the late 1950s and around 2000; growth and volatility shocks drive the two apart, while inflation shocks move them in the same direction through the common discount rate.

Cited in: Stock-bond correlation: regimes, drivers and what it means for 60/40, risk parity and hedging

Ilmanen (2011) · Expected Returns: An Investor's Guide to Harvesting Market Rewards

Ilmanen, Antti. Wiley.

A comprehensive book on the expected returns of asset classes, style premiums and risk factors.

Cited in: Carry trade: earning interest with currencies and bonds · Equity risk premium: how much more equities return and why it is a puzzle · Gold in a portfolio: safe haven, inflation hedge or just shiny? · Glossary: Factor premium · Glossary: Carry

Ilmanen (2012) · Do Financial Markets Reward Buying or Selling Insurance and Lottery Tickets?

Ilmanen, Antti. Financial Analysts Journal 68 (5), pp. 26–36. doi:10.2469/faj.v68.n5.7

Selling insurance and lottery tickets earned positive long-run premiums in many markets, while buying catastrophe protection and lottery-like assets produced weak returns: small risks are often well rewarded, large ones are not.

Cited in: Tail hedging: what put protection costs, when it pays off and what short-vol strategies teach

Ilmanen et al. (2020) · Demystifying Illiquid Assets: Expected Returns for Private Equity

Ilmanen, Antti; Chandra, Swati; McQuinn, Nicholas. The Journal of Alternative Investments 22 (3), pp. 8–22. doi:10.3905/jai.2019.1.086

Expected returns on private equity: a levered small-cap index is a better benchmark, smoothed returns understate risk, and the edge over public equities has shrunk over time.

Cited in: Private equity explained: strategies, fund structure, fees and what research shows about returns · Measuring private markets: J-curve, cash flows, smoothing and public proxies

Ilmanen et al. (2021) · Tail Risk Hedging: Contrasting Put and Trend Strategies

Ilmanen, Antti; Thapar, Ashwin; Tummala, Harsha; Villalon, Dan. Journal of Systematic Investing 1 (1), pp. 111–124. doi:10.52354/jsi.1.1.vi

A comparison of regularly bought index puts and trend following across many asset classes as tail hedges: the common view that puts cost more but protect more reliably has a kernel of truth but falls short, and on cost, trend following comes out ahead. Also published as an AQR working paper (February 28, 2021).

Cited in: Tail hedging: what put protection costs, when it pays off and what short-vol strategies teach

Indeed Hiring Lab (2026) · Indeed Job Postings Index (data archive on GitHub, hiring-lab/data)

Indeed Hiring Lab. Indeed Hiring Lab; data through October 16, 2026, accessed October 27, 2026. Source

Daily indices of job postings by country since February 1, 2020 (= 100), seasonally adjusted with the Bundesbank's method for daily data and as a 7-day average, updated weekly; license CC BY 4.0.

Cited in: Economic pulse: how Portfolio Lab calculates early indicators · Glossary: Job postings index

ILPA (2017) · Subscription Lines of Credit and Alignment of Interests: Considerations and Best Practices for Limited and General Partners

Institutional Limited Partners Association. ILPA, June 2017; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

How subscription lines of credit raise the IRR, especially early on, and lower the multiple; recommendations include reporting the IRR with and without the credit line and a maximum of 180 days per drawdown.

Cited in: Private equity explained: strategies, fund structure, fees and what research shows about returns · Measuring private markets: J-curve, cash flows, smoothing and public proxies · Glossary: J-curve · Glossary: Subscription line

ILPA DDQ (2021) · Due Diligence Questionnaire and Diversity Metrics Template (ILPA DDQ 2.0)

Institutional Limited Partners Association. ILPA, 2021 version, web page modified November 18, 2025; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Standardizes the most common due diligence questions that investors put to private markets managers; earlier versions date from 2013, 2016 and 2018, and the ESG section is based on the PRI questionnaire.

Cited in: RFP and mandate awards: how institutional investors select asset managers · Glossary: Due diligence questionnaire

ILPA (2023) · Continuation Funds: Considerations for Limited Partners and General Partners

Institutional Limited Partners Association. ILPA, May 2023; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Guidance on continuation funds: the manager's conflict of interest from sitting on both sides, a fairness opinion, at least 30 calendar days or 20 business days to decide, and an option with unchanged terms.

Cited in: Buyout funds and management buyouts: how LBOs, MBOs and MBIs work · Private equity explained: strategies, fund structure, fees and what research shows about returns · Glossary: Secondaries

ILPA (2024) · NAV-Based Facilities: Guidance for Limited Partners and General Partners

Institutional Limited Partners Association. ILPA, July 2024; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Loans against the value of fund holdings: mostly used for early distributions, which significantly affect IRR and DPI; ILPA counts them as fund-level leverage and recommends approval by the LP advisory committee.

Cited in: Private equity explained: strategies, fund structure, fees and what research shows about returns · Measuring private markets: J-curve, cash flows, smoothing and public proxies · Private debt in practice: direct lending, unitranche, mezzanine, loan structure and fund vehicles · Glossary: DPI · Glossary: NAV financing

IFRS 13 (2011) · IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement, Appendix B (Application Guidance), paragraphs B5-B7

International Accounting Standards Board. IASB; verbatim Australian version AASB 13 at the Australian Accounting Standards Board, accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Classifies matrix pricing as a market-based valuation technique: financial instruments such as bonds are valued by their relationship to quoted benchmark securities rather than solely by their own prices.

Cited in: Market making and bond trading: spread, inventory, axes, RFQ, cross trades and matrix pricing · Glossary: Matrix pricing

IMO (2015) · Revised Guidelines for the Onboard Operational Use of Shipborne Automatic Identification Systems (AIS), Resolution A.1106(29)

International Maritime Organization. International Maritime Organization, adopted December 2, 2015. Source

IMO guidelines on the use of AIS on board: the requirement under SOLAS V/19, static, dynamic and voyage-related data, reporting intervals, typical range and switching off by the master.

Cited in: Ship tracking data and satellite images: what they reveal about commodities · Ships at chokepoints (beta): methodology · Glossary: AIS · Glossary: IMO number · Glossary: Draft

IMF (2024) · Global Financial Stability Report, April 2024, Chapter 2: The Rise and Risks of Private Credit

International Monetary Fund. International Monetary Fund, Washington, April 16, 2024; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

The growth of private credit to about US$2.1 trillion (2023) and the risks from the IMF's perspective: valuation, hidden leverage, interconnections and the liquidity of semi-liquid funds.

Cited in: Private credit and public credit compared: returns, risks and what the research shows · Private debt in practice: direct lending, unitranche, mezzanine, loan structure and fund vehicles · Glossary: Private credit · Glossary: Payment in kind (PIK)

IOSCO (2023) · Anti-dilution Liquidity Management Tools – Guidance for Effective Implementation of the Recommendations for Liquidity Risk Management for Collective Investment Schemes, Final Report (FR/15/2023)

International Organization of Securities Commissions. IOSCO, December 2023; accessed October 26, 2026. Source

Guidance on swing pricing, anti-dilution levies, dual pricing and redemption fees: investors entering and exiting should bear the estimated liquidity costs, both explicit and implicit, including market impact, and thresholds should be set prudently.

Cited in: Liquidity risk: measuring market liquidity, liquidity premiums and the tools of open-ended funds · Glossary: Anti-dilution levy

IOSCO (2025) · IOSCO Issues Final Report on Updated Liquidity Risk Management Recommendations for Collective Investment Schemes (Press Release IOSCO/MR/12/2025)

International Organization of Securities Commissions. IOSCO, Madrid, May 26, 2025; accessed October 26, 2026. Source

A set of 17 revised recommendations on the liquidity risk of open-ended funds in six areas, from fund design to stress testing, implementing the Financial Stability Board's recommendations of December 2023.

Cited in: Liquidity risk: measuring market liquidity, liquidity premiums and the tools of open-ended funds

ITU (2026) · Recommendation ITU-R M.1371-6: Technical characteristics for VHF automatic identification system using time division multiple access in the maritime mobile service

International Telecommunication Union. ITU-R, February 2026. Source

The technical standard for AIS: message structure, reporting intervals, identifiers (MMSI, IMO number), dimensions, draft and the table of ship types.

Cited in: Ship tracking data and satellite images: what they reveal about commodities · Ships at chokepoints (beta): methodology · Glossary: AIS · Glossary: MMSI · Glossary: IMO number

ICI (2026) · The US ETF Market: FAQs

Investment Company Institute. Investment Company Institute, April 22, 2026; accessed October 25, 2026. Source

Questions and answers on the US ETF market, including the number of mutual funds converted into ETFs since 2021.

Cited in: Active ETFs: how they work and what they deliver

Israelov (2018) · Pathetic Protection: The Elusive Benefits of Protective Puts

Israelov, Roni. The Journal of Alternative Investments 21 (3), pp. 6–33. doi:10.3905/jai.2018.1.066

In typical use, bought puts reduce drawdowns hardly any better than a permanently lower equity allocation; without lucky timing of purchase and maturity, they can even increase drawdowns and volatility per unit of expected return.

Cited in: Tail hedging: what put protection costs, when it pays off and what short-vol strategies teach

Ivanov and Lenkey (2018) · Do Leveraged ETFs Really Amplify Late-Day Returns and Volatility?

Ivanov, Ivan T.; Lenkey, Stephen L.. Journal of Financial Markets 41, pp. 36–56. doi:10.1016/j.finmar.2018.09.001

Inflows and outflows offset a large part of the rebalancing, which leaves an economically insignificant effect on end-of-day returns and volatility.

Cited in: How leveraged ETFs are built: swaps, daily rebalancing and gamma risk

Iyer et al. (2016) · Screening Peers Softly: Inferring the Quality of Small Borrowers

Iyer, Rajkamal; Khwaja, Asim Ijaz; Luttmer, Erzo F. P.; Shue, Kelly. Management Science 62 (6), pp. 1554–1577. doi:10.1287/mnsc.2015.2181

Individual lenders predict defaults 45% more accurately than the exact credit score and reach 87% of the predictive power of all standard financial data; soft information helps especially with weaker borrowers.

Cited in: Glossary: P2P loan